Synthesis and Characterization of Nylon-6,6 Polymer

Synthesis and Characterization of Nylon-6,6 Polymer Abstract Synthesis and characterization of nylon-6,6 polymer was performed in this experiment. Nylon-6,6, was obtained from adipoyl chloride and 1,6-hexanediamine monomers, dissolved in cyclohexane and water. Employing interfacial polymerization technique, thin film of nylon product was formed and collected. The final product were white peaces of small fragile strings with a total mass of 0.0694 g and 4 cm in length. Infrared spectroscopy then characterized the final product and confirmed successeful synthesis of nylon-6,6 polymer due to the appearance of N-H stretching, C=O stretching, and N-H bending from the secondary amide group and from the nylon polymer. Introduction Polymers are macromolecules consisting of smaller subunits, called monomers.4 There are two main types of synthetic polymers, according to the mechanism by which they are synthetically made: step- growth and chain-growth polymers.4 One of the most popular synthetic polymers is nylon-6,6 due to low cost and ease of synthesis. There is no human activity where plastics are not used on a daily basis. Nylon in particular is widely used, due to variety of properties such as: elasticity, flexibility, lightweight and strength.5 Clothing, electronics, packaging, cars, airplanes, medical supplies, cookware, ropes all examples of nylon fabrics.5 In this experiment nylon is made by step- growth polymerization and condensation reaction. The monomers involved in this polymerization reaction are adipoyl chloride and 1,6-hexanediamine dissolved in cyclohexane, respectively. The chloride from the acid and the hydrogen proton from the amine group form a hydrochloric acid.4 The rest of the adipoyl chloride and hexanediamine will link together to form a larger polymer molecule. In each end of this polymer is a primary amine group in one end or an acid chloride group in the other end.4 These groups can act in a similar way with other acid/amine groups from the adipoyl chloride and hexanediamine. If many steps of this process are repeated, nylon-6,6 polymer will be formed.4 Hydrochloric acid is generated as a byproduct upon nylon formation, therefore a strong base must be added to neutralize the acidity of HCl, and maintain the pH of the solution. In this experiment sodium hydroxide was used as base. Infrared (IR) spectroscopy will be applied as method of characterization. It will provide information regarding   functional groups present in a molecule because the location of the absorption peaks observed have been associated with specific types of chemical bonds.6 It could be determine which functional groups from the starting monomers, are present in the nylon spectrum. Results Table 1: Nylon-6,6 Polymer Mass of nylon-6,6 0.0694 g Length 4 cm Appearance White fragile strings Table 2: IR spectrum of adipoyl chloride Functional Group Molecular Motion Observed Wavenumber (cm-1) Literature Value Range(cm-1) Peak Intensity Peak Shape   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Alkane C-H Stretch 2952.44 3000-2850 Weak Broad Acyl chloride C=O Stretch 1779.80 1820-1780 Weak Sharp Alkane C-H in plane bend 1404.56 1480-1350 Medium Sharp Acyl chloride C-Cl Stretch 681.43 800-600 Strong Sharp Table 3: IR spectrum of 1,6- hexanediamine Functional Group Molecular Motion Observed Wavenumber (cm-1) Literature Value Range(cm-1) Peak Intensity Peak Shape 1 ° amine N-H Stretch 3323.78 3300-3250 Medium Sharp Alkane C-H Assym. Stretch 2921.17 3000-2850 Strong Sharp Alkane C-H Sym. Stretch 2846.91 3000-2850 Strong Sharp 1 ° amine N-H Bend 1603.91 1640-1530 Medium Sharp Table 4: IR spectrum of nylon-6,6 polymer Functional Group Molecular Motion Observed Wavenumber (cm-1) Literature Value Range(cm-1) Peak Intensity Peak Shape 2 ° amide N-H Stretch 3299.0 3300-3250 Strong Sharp Alkane C-H Assym. Stretch 2932.0 3000-2850 Medium Sharp Alkane C-H Sym. Stretch 2859.0 3000-2850 Medium Sharp 2 ° amide C=O Stretch 1636.0 1680-1640   Ã‚   Strong Sharp 2 ° amide N-H   Bend 1538.0 1560-1530 Medium Sharp Discussion In this experiment, sythesis of nylon-6,6 was carried out. The final product had an appearance of white pieces of small fragile strings with a total mass of 0.0694 g and 4 cm in length. A way of improving the yield could be: different molar ratios of water to solvent; changing the solvent. No theorytical yield could be calculated for this reaction because all the polymer chains will have   variety of different lengths.1 The ability of nylon-6,6 to undergo hydrogen bonding results in high molecular order and high degree of interchain interaction as shown below2 (Figure 1). Each single chain of nylon fiber will interact with the adjacent one, forming a hydrogen bond between the nitrogen proton of the secondary amide and the lone pairs of the oxygen on the carbonyl, thus making the nylon polymers strong, difficult to separate and resistant to outside reaction.2 The signals for the IR spectrum of adipoyl chloride, are presented in Table 2. The spectrum shows the characteristic weak and narrow alkane peak, C-H stretch at 2952.44 cm-1. This value was within the range 3000-2850 cm-1 for the secondary alkane functional groups.   The weak and sharp C=O stretch appeared at 1779.80 cm-1 thus correlating with the literature value 1820-1780 cm-1. A C-H bend for alkanes should appear at 1480-1350 cm-1, which did appear at 1404.56 cm-1 as a medium and sharp peak. A C-Cl stretch was observed at 681.43 cm-1, within the expected range of 800-600 cm-1. This peak appeared weak to strong and sharp. The IR spectrum for 1,6-hexanediamine exhibits the following stretches: N-H stretch; N-H bend; alkane C-H asymmetric stretch; and an alkane C-H symmetric stretch. The primary amine is causing the N-H stretch. The literature value for this stretch is from 3300 to 3250 cm-1, which corresponds to the experimental value of 3323.78 cm-1. The peak intensity is medium and the shape is sharp. There is another sharp peak with medium intensity caused by the primary amine as well, which appear to be a N-H bend. The experimental value of 1603.91 cm-1 correlates well with the literature value range of 1640-1530 cm-1. There is C-H asymmetric stretch observed at 2921.17 cm-1 and it corresponds to the literature value range of 3000-2850 cm-1, caused by the alkane. It exhibited strong intensity. The C-H symmetric stretch falls in the appropriate range of literature values 3000-2850 cm-1 and it is caused by the alkane as well (See table 3). Analysis of IR spectrum of nylon-6,6 polymer showed successful synthesis. There were five distinct peaks associated with this compound include the following: N-H stretch; C=O stretch; C-H symmetric stretch; C-H antisymmetric stretch; and N-H bend. The N-H stretch had an observed peak value of 3300.81 cm-1 and its caused by the secondary amine. It correlates well with the literature values of 3300-3250 cm-1 and with the N-H stretch of 1,6-hexadiamine at 3323.78 cm-1. The two peaks have the same shapes, just slightly different intensities. Nylon-6,6 has strong intensity whereas the 1,6- hexanediamine, medium one. The C=O stretch had an observed peak value of 1634.04 cm-1. It falls within the expected literature values for this peak 1300-1100 cm-1. It appears at lower wavelength, compared to the adipoyl chloride. The proximity of the carbonyl to the nitrogen, lowers the energy of that stretch, due to interchain molecular interactions3. The alkane C-H assymetric and symmetric stretches e vident at 2932 cm-1 and 2832 cm-1 are nearly identical with the C-H stretches of 1,6- hexanediamine (See Tables 2 and 3). Differing only in their intensities- medium for the nylon and strong for the 1,6- hexanediamine.   All of the observed values fall within their literature range. The N-H bend at 1538 cm-1 with medium intensity and sharp peak, is caused by the secondary amide. It is in the accepted literature data of 1560-1530 cm-1. The major peak not present in the nylon-6,6 spectrum and evident in the starting material spectra for adipoyl chloride is the C-Cl stretch. The acyl chloride stretch is missing because there is no chlorine in the nylon composition, thus explaining why there are no observed stretches below 1000 cm-1. The other major difference is the N-H stretch observed at 3323.78 cm-1 in the hexanediamine spectrum, which appears at lower wavelength and becoming one peak for a secondary amide in the nylon spectrum. Conclusion This experiment demonstrated successful synthesis of nylon-6,6 polymer. It was accomplished using infrared spectroscopy technique. The IR analysis revealed the appearance of N-H stretching, C=O stretching and N-H bending from a secondary amide group and from the nylon polymer. It showed that there is no C-Cl stretch explaining the absence of chlorine in the nylon polymer as well as the N-H observed on the hexanediamine spectrum, appears on a lower wavelength as a secondary amide in the nylon spectrum. The final product had an appearance of white pieces of small fragile strings with a total mass of 0.0694 g and 4 cm. However, this experiments allows for multiple errors; such as improper pipetting technique; improper washing technique; incorrect rate of taking out the nylon product from the reaction beaker.   A chemical error could be not adding enough sodium hydroxide to neutralize the acidity of HCl, not allowing the reaction to be pushed towards the product.

Ursula K. LeGuins The Lathe of Heaven and Science Fiction and the Futu

Ursula K. LeGuin's The Lathe of Heaven and Science Fiction and the Future What will happen in a couple of days? a month ? a year? or twenty years from now? The answer is not known. Author Ursula K. LeGuin gives us the answers about the future from her point of view which can be seen through her article Science Fiction and the Future and her novel, The Lathe of Heaven. Ursula K. LeGuin believes people try to control the future they may have when in reality they have no control over the future. Every single day we see examples of people trying to control the future and see the situation fail every single time. Through Le Guins article Science Fiction and the Future, LeGuin uses examples to support her theory of not being able to control the future. First, she uses the Quechua speaking people to relate their perception of the future. The Quechua people view the future as in back of us. What does that mean? I feel that the Quechua people and LeGuins use of the Quechua as an example shows how each individual is ultimately without control. Each person can see what is ahead of them. Each person can see right in front of them consequences of actions ones have made. Each one can see who they currently have in their life. But, if you are looking straight ahead you have no idea what is behind you. Not being able to see anything is where LeGuin proves her theory. If you cant see something, how are you suppose to be able to change it? Many times in life, society as a whole likes to think of having knowledge of what the future may bring when actually the future is just predicted. I think that sometime s it is not good to try to predict the future for we never know if the prediction is really the best thing for us even though we would it... ... way Dr. Haber in The Lathe of Heaven does. Dr. Habers use of power misses the most vital point society needs: change. I prefer to go with the Quechua speaking peoples view of not being able to see your future but being able to make glimpses. I like to think of having obstacles come my way so that I in turn can become a better person. I also believe that challenges in life our good because that is when you see how strong your faith is. If there were no obstacles in the world and only what you wish for, the world is a place that I would not like to be found at. So as for now, and with the many obstacles I will have to face in the future, I will let the God that I believe in decide what my future will consist of. As far as Im concerned, I am safer with letting God be in control because I know he ultimately knows what in fact is the best for me and not my own desires.

Alignment of IT and Business

IT and business alignment is the best system for modern strategic management of organizations because it reduces the overall costs of operations, promotes effective communication in a company, and enhances faster response and evaluation of business progress.   Besides, it sets a platform for faster changes by an organization in future.However, IT and business alignment has proved to be one of the most difficult aspect for most organizations.   Over 75% of the companies and institutions have not fully aligned IT with their management systems.   However, over 80% of them have partially embraced IT especially in the top management levels (Aileen, 2008).IT and business alignment is an ongoing process that optimizes the IT mechanisms and business management operations at all levels.   It carves the correct climate whereby IT becomes a major strategic enabler of all the business operations.Lack of effective leadership in business operationsAccording to Roland (2008) effective leade rship in a business setting acts as a major platform and a guiding icon towards the correct direction for an organization.   Arguably, it is the role of the business leaders to pro-actively identify the most important aspects that would enhance higher levels of sustainability.Notably, small mistakes taken by conservative rigid leaders are referred as minor shenanigans and mostly not factored in business operations until it has sank into great losses.   Most of the leaders are directly engrossed into the past methods of business operations based on raw products and finished products simplified systems of accounting.   Many organizations are unable to link the extra IT cost to be incurred by the business and the returns to be achieved.As indicated by majority of the large companies that have embraced IT in their systems like Wal-Mart and JP Morgan & Chase, the returns are not instant and may take time before the respective advantages are realized.   Arguably, IT/ Business alig nment is a process as opposed to a one day operation.After launching its Point of Sale services that would link Citibank with its major financial operations information centers, the Bank had to wait for some months before realizing the expected goals (Mahesh, 2007).Poor focus into the future and conservatismAnalysts have linked hardship to articulate IT and business hardships to three superimposed factors of business management namely tactic, strategy, and innovation.   The three factors are effectively superimposed on each other and simultaneously operate for or against IT/ business alignment depending with the prevailing environment.Lack of effective tactics and strategy by business makes the overall demand for modernization to appear vague (Malcolm & Keith, 2007).   Notably, many companies and organizations especially in areas with reduced competition have been slow in aligning IT and their business operations.Southwest Airlines managing director cited his company's success a s a product of effective tactic that incorporated customer and staff management through information technology that assists the airline to respond faster to all the consumer need.Arguably, the current economic down turn could have affected them very negatively as the company offers low cost flights in US (Ann, 2007).Henersen & Venkartraman (1993) points out that poor innovative capacity by organization forms a major stepping block of growth, and development.   Arguably, alignment of IT and business demands high levels of innovative capacity that carves new ways of operating the old models.This has been indicated as one of the hardest nut to crack especially where leaders are greatly old fashioned.   This has been cited as the major setback especially where people manage their own premises as opposed to professionals. There is generally lack of effective cost benefit analysis to determine the overall suitability of the alignment.Organizations financial abilityTo add to that, lack of enough finances has slowed or hindered many company's operations alignment with IT.   Arguably, establishment of IT infrastructure is a costly venture that requires correct budgeting in effecting the overall venture.Though analysts have differed on the statement that finances form the key aspect in aligning IT and business operations, it is clear that very little can be achieved without enough funds (Aileen, 2008).Though the cost of installation and establishing the correct IT systems in business has relatively declined, the overall maintenance and possible establishment of new IT operations department demands enough funds especially at the beginning.   This has been a major cause of failure especially in the last three years when companies' have are trying to reduce the overall cost as much as possible.ConclusionIT/ business alignment is the best system for modern strategic management for effecting change and maximizing profits.   Effective leadership demands that balance is taken to ensure increased focus into the future that will be defined and established on the basis of IT assimilation in the business.Lean management should be assimilated in organizations through IT and business alignment’s as a mode of reducing the overall wasteful systems in its operations.   Businesses should embark on international studies to establish the facts and the vast advantages that are derived from IT alignment in business management operations.

Increase Of Minimum Wage Increases Economic Woes - 1129 Words

Increase of Minimum Wage Decreases Economic Woes An issue that has been debating throughout centuries is whether or not America should increase the minimum wage. This is an issue that has been arising to be relevant to pboeople all over the nation. Researches have provided logical facts and statistics on how increasing the minimum wage would be the solution to America’s debt. Increasing the minimum wage has also been successful in several countries including Germany. Studies have shown that decreasing the minimum wage is unlikely to solve any economic woes. While when we increase the minimum wage it benefits the economy, employment as well as dexterous people. Furthermore, increasing the minimum wage comes with advantageous traits such as improving the economy. According to a study from â€Å"The Economist† in 2016 conducted by Buttonwood states, â€Å"some British companies that voluntarily shifted to a higher living wage found that staff absenteeism and turnover rate s reduced, and productivity improved† (Buttonwood). Having a higher productivity means that the country will improve economically. One of the most memorable historical events that America can relate to is the â€Å"Great Depression†. President Franklin D. Roosevelt improved the economy by increasing the minimum wage making the productivity rate rise showing a direct correlation. In addition, another magazine article from â€Å"Tharawat† written by a staff writer, Marie Crosse, claims, â€Å"a crucial part of bringing back growth toShow MoreRelatedAmerica Should Increase The Minimum Wage1117 Words   |  5 Pagesnot America should increase the minimum wage. This is an issue that has been arising to be relevant to people all over the nation. 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